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Seizure types, epilepsy types, syndromes and tests.
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Enter the LevWise Patients & Families or Health Professionals section.
EpilepsyWise is an evidence-led epilepsy resource for patients, families and health professionals, with a major focus on choosing antiseizure medicines wisely. LevWise remains its flagship prescribing project.
Plain-language epilepsy information for patients and families: seizure types, first aid, common mimics, medicines, safety, driving and living well.
A clear first-visit guide for people and families seeking trustworthy information about levetiracetam.
Practical, compassionate guidance for families and carers supporting someone taking levetiracetam.
A practical introduction to epilepsy, the 2025 ILAE seizure classification, epilepsy types, syndromes and the difference between provoked seizures and epilepsy.
Practical seizure first aid, when to call an ambulance, and common mistakes to avoid during a seizure.
Common conditions that can mimic epileptic seizures, including syncope, functional seizures, migraine, sleep disorders and metabolic causes.
Practical guidance on sleep, medicines, alcohol, water safety, exercise, work, study and driving for people living with epilepsy.
A clear, balanced explanation of SUDEP, seizure-related risk and practical steps that can reduce risk.
Plain-language definitions of key terms related to levetiracetam, epilepsy, and antiepileptic drug therapy.
LevWise and medicine choices
Every prescription deserves a reason and a review. Clear information on diagnosis, medicine choices and practical questions for your next appointment.
LevWise is the flagship EpilepsyWise prescribing project: evidence-led information on levetiracetam, its appropriate role, adverse effects and alternatives.
Learn about levetiracetam (Keppra) — its history, mechanism of action via SV2A, pharmacokinetics, and approved indications.
Evidence-based overview of levetiracetam side effects including neuropsychiatric effects, cognitive impairment, and systemic adverse events.
Evidence-based analysis of levetiracetam's place in epilepsy therapy — SANAD II, reflex prescribing, and Iatrogenic Refractory Epilepsy.
Evidence-based comparison of antiseizure medicines by epilepsy type, including lacosamide, zonisamide, brivaracetam, lamotrigine, valproate, and levetiracetam.
A comprehensive comparative guide to classic and modern antiseizure medicines, including mechanisms, half-lives, adverse effects, indications and place in therapy.
Evidence-based prescribing checklist and quick-reference decision table for antiepileptic drug selection, including levetiracetam guidance.
Clinical approach and learning
Clinical epilepsy resources for health professionals: diagnosis, ILAE classification, differentials, investigations, antiseizure medicine selection, first aid and referral.
A four-question clinical approach to seizure diagnosis, classification, first-line treatment, add-on therapy and specialist referral.
How pregnancy, reproductive safety, age, kidney/liver function, mood, cognition, weight and comorbidities change antiseizure medicine choice.
What drug-resistant epilepsy means, why repeated medication changes should trigger reassessment, and when surgery, neurostimulation or dietary therapy may be considered.
EpilepsyWise's philosophy of epilepsy treatment: maximise seizure control while minimising treatment burden and protecting quality of life, function and independence.
Symptoms, possible epilepsy patterns, EEG and MRI findings, and medicine principles. An interactive explorer, flowchart and eight case challenges.
Practical tools and patient resources
Printable patient information leaflet — questions to ask your neurologist about levetiracetam and warning signs to watch for.
A printable LevWise quick guide to recognising potential levetiracetam side effects and preparing for a clinical conversation.
A printable LevWise worksheet and guidance to help prepare for a medication or neurology appointment. Complete health notes offline.
A private browser-based checklist to help visitors progress through LevWise at their own pace.
The largest US epilepsy organisation. Offers a 24/7 helpline, peer support network, local chapter events, and an extensive online community forum for patients and caregivers.
LevWise patient and family experiences, with privacy and story guidelines. New story submissions are currently disabled.
Understand LevWise privacy, moderation, consent, and safety expectations before submitting a patient or family experience.
Evidence, research and accountability
Topic-organised database of scientific literature on levetiracetam — clinical trials, neuropsychiatric effects, guidelines, and patient resources.
Landmark publications on levetiracetam — SANAD II, ESETT, Kwan & Brodie, and key safety studies.
Ongoing research into levetiracetam prescribing patterns and outcomes. Study protocol, phase tracker, and collaboration enquiry form.
A transparent log of LevWise evidence reviews, patient resource improvements, and governance updates.
How LevWise selects sources, reviews medical information, handles conflicts, and corrects material errors.
LevWise governance principles, advisory roles, appointment safeguards, and editorial independence standards.
See when LevWise resources were last checked, when they are next due for review, and what prompts an earlier update.
A transparent pathway for researchers, patient organisations, and institutions interested in collaborating with LevWise.
Learn how LevWise protects free public access and editorial independence while developing transparent, ethical funding options.
About EpilepsyWise and its LevWise flagship prescribing project.
Complete sitemap for EpilepsyWise and its LevWise flagship prescribing section.
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Understand more, at your own paceRead in more depthOpen the topics you need for explanations, practical questions and source references.
New practical questions checked 5 November 2026. Reading guides retain their own source dates. This online expansion is additional to the existing downloadable editions.
Learn about epilepsy — understand the diagnosisEpilepsy is a group of brain conditions with a tendency to repeated epileptic seizures. It is not contagious and it does not define a person’s intelligence, character or potential. Understanding your own seizure type is more useful than comparing yourself with a dramatic seizure seen on screen.
Questions you may have
Does one event always mean epilepsy?
No. Different conditions can cause blackouts or unusual movements. Your clinician combines the story, examination and relevant tests; sometimes more observation or specialist testing is needed.
Can symptoms that resemble seizures have another cause?
Yes. Fainting, some sleep events and functional seizures can look similar. These symptoms are real and deserve assessment. Their treatment may differ from epilepsy treatment.
Why does a witness description matter?
A witness may notice a sequence you cannot remember. Bring their account or a safely recorded video if available. No one should delay first aid or place themselves at risk to record an event.
Read the guide in depth
A seizure and epilepsy are different ideas
A seizure is an episode caused by abnormal brain electrical activity. Epilepsy describes an ongoing tendency to epileptic seizures. One event does not always establish epilepsy: clinicians consider whether it was provoked by an acute illness or another cause and whether further seizures are likely.
- Ask: was this event definitely epileptic, and what supports that conclusion?
- Ask what remains uncertain and which follow-up is planned.
Supporting source ↗ · Supporting source ↗ · Supporting source ↗
Seizures can affect movement, senses or consciousness
Some seizures start in a network on one side of the brain; others involve networks on both sides. They may cause an unusual sensation, speech difficulty, staring, sudden jerks, loss of tone, stiffening or convulsions. More than one seizure type can occur in the same person.
- Describe what happened before using a label.
- A familiar “aura” can itself be a focal seizure.
- A focal seizure may spread into a bilateral tonic-clonic seizure.
Why names may change
Seizure terminology has been updated over time, including an ILAE update in 2025. Older letters may say “partial”, “complex partial” or “secondary generalisation”; newer reports may describe focal seizures and whether consciousness is preserved or impaired. A changed name does not by itself mean the illness has worsened.
- Ask your clinician to write the current name and its plain-language meaning.
- Keep older terms alongside newer ones in your history to avoid confusion.
Diagnosis begins with the story
The sequence before, during and after an event is central. Witness accounts, safe recordings, medical history and examination help distinguish epilepsy from other causes. Fainting, cardiac problems and functional seizures can resemble epilepsy. Functional seizures are real events and require an appropriate explanation and treatment pathway.
- Bring an observer or a written account where possible.
- Include posture, warning symptoms, triggers, duration and recovery.
- Do not assume every future symptom has the same cause.
Supporting source ↗ · Supporting source ↗ · Supporting source ↗
What EEG, MRI and other tests can tell you
An EEG samples electrical brain activity; it can support classification, but a normal routine EEG does not rule out epilepsy. MRI looks for structural changes and answers a different question. An ECG and blood tests may help find alternative explanations or acute contributors. Not every person needs the same set of tests.
- Ask what question each test is intended to answer.
- Ask how the result fits your history rather than reading it in isolation.
Causes and triggers are not the same
An underlying cause may be genetic, structural, infectious or another brain condition; sometimes no cause is identified. A trigger is a circumstance that increases seizure likelihood in someone susceptible. Missing medicine or poor sleep can matter without being the original cause of the epilepsy.
- Keep brief, factual notes about possible patterns.
- Avoid blaming yourself or someone else for an event.
- Not all seizures have an identifiable trigger.
Treatment aims for your best possible life
Antiseizure medicines are the main treatment for many people. Other options can include specialist dietary treatment, devices or surgery after assessment. Treatment success includes seizure control, manageable adverse effects and participation in daily life. Do not start a restrictive therapeutic diet without a trained clinical team.
- Ask for a clear plan if seizures continue.
- Bring side effects and quality-of-life concerns to reviews.
- A specialist opinion can be useful when diagnosis or treatment remains uncertain.
Start with a manageable first-month plan
You do not have to learn everything at once. Put the essentials in one folder: diagnosis explanation, medicine list, seizure diary, first aid instructions and follow-up contacts. Choose one person to learn first aid with you and bring your highest-priority questions to the next appointment.
- Understand the medicine schedule and what to do after a missed dose.
- Discuss driving, water safety and work risks with your team.
- Agree when the diagnosis and treatment will be reviewed.
When seizures continue despite treatment
Ask for a comprehensive epilepsy-service review after two appropriate, tolerated and adequately tried medicine schedules have not achieved lasting seizure freedom. The review checks diagnosis and treatment use and considers further medicines, surgery, dietary therapy or devices. A surgical assessment is a discussion of options, not a commitment to an operation.
Functional seizures need their own care
Functional seizures are real, involuntary events that differ from epileptic seizures. The conditions can coexist. A specialist may use the history, witness video and video-EEG of typical episodes to clarify what is happening. Treatment can include a clear explanation and psychological therapies. Do not change antiseizure treatment yourself when the diagnosis is uncertain.
Genetics is more than a family history
A genetic cause may arise for the first time in a family. Testing can sometimes explain epilepsy or guide treatment, but may return an uncertain result or no diagnosis. Ask whether testing would answer a useful question for you, and about counselling, consent and possible implications for relatives.
Epilepsy can begin in later life
New spells in an older adult need careful assessment for epilepsy and other causes, including fainting and cardiac events. Review other illnesses, memory, falls, kidney function and the full medicine list. Practical support and tolerability are as important as a medicine choice on paper.
Worldwide evidence and local access
The 2025 Global Burden of Disease publication estimated 51.7 million people living with epilepsy in 2021, with an uncertainty interval of 44.9–58.9 million. This is a historical modelled estimate. Access to diagnosis and reliable medicine supply remains unequal; ask about locally available care and referral rather than assuming that every treatment is accessible everywhere.
Sources and further reading
- CDC: Epilepsy basics ↗
- ILAE EpilepsyDiagnosis: Seizure classification ↗
- ILAE: Updated classification of epileptic seizures (2025) ↗
- NICE NG217: Diagnosis and assessment ↗
- Epilepsy Action Australia: Managing your seizures ↗
- CDC: Treatment of epilepsy ↗
- NICE NG217: Information and support ↗
- World Health Organization (2024): Epilepsy ↗
- GBD Epilepsy Collaborators (2025): Global, regional, and national burden of epilepsy, 1990–2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021 ↗
- Fisher RS et al. (2014): ILAE official report: a practical clinical definition of epilepsy ↗
- Beniczky S et al. (2025): Updated classification of epileptic seizures: position paper of the International League Against Epilepsy ↗
- Kwan P et al. (2010): Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies ↗
- Jehi L et al. (2022): Timing of referral to evaluate for epilepsy surgery: expert consensus recommendations from the ILAE Surgical Therapies Commission ↗
- Wiebe S et al. (2001): A randomized, controlled trial of surgery for temporal-lobe epilepsy ↗
- Tolchin B et al. (2026): Management of functional seizures practice guideline executive summary: report of the AAN Guidelines Subcommittee ↗
- Krey I et al. (2022): Current practice in diagnostic genetic testing of the epilepsies ↗
- Piccenna L et al. (2023): Management of epilepsy in older adults: a critical review by the ILAE Task Force on Epilepsy in the elderly ↗
- World Health Organization (2023): Mental Health Gap Action Programme guideline for mental, neurological and substance use disorders, third edition ↗
EpiResearch: understand research before joiningLearn how to judge a study invitation and prepare questions for your treating clinician.
Questions you may have
How do I judge a claim about a new treatment?
Ask who was studied, what it was compared with, which outcomes improved, what harms occurred and whether the findings apply to you. An encouraging result does not automatically mean a treatment is suitable for every epilepsy.
Read the guide in depth
What a study may ask of you
Research may test a medicine, device, operation, behaviour change or a way of delivering care. Other projects observe existing treatment or collect interviews. The study design affects what participation means.
Ask whether your normal care continues, whether treatment is allocated by chance and whether a placebo is involved. A study is designed to answer a question; benefit for an individual is uncertain.
Check the study and its team
Use a recognised trial registry and check the full study identifier, sponsor, locations and current contact details. Ask for the participant information sheet and ethics-approval details.
A registry entry is a starting point, not a personal recommendation or assurance that recruitment is still open. Confirm with the study team and your treating clinician.
Understand informed consent
Ask for enough time to read and discuss the information. Participation is voluntary. Ask what withdrawing involves, how already collected data are handled and whether stopping treatment needs clinical supervision.
For a child or someone requiring decision support, ask how consent and their own agreement will be managed. You can ask for an interpreter or accessible explanation.
Clarify burden, cost and safety
List visits, travel, blood tests, scans, time off work and any changes to medicines or contraception. Ask which costs are reimbursed, who covers injury and who answers urgent problems.
Understand possible benefits, known risks and uncertainty. Ask how adverse effects are reported, whether driving may be affected and what care continues after the study ends.
Protect your information
Ask who sees identifiable information, whether it leaves Australia, how long it is retained and whether samples or records may be used for future studies. Distinguish agreeing to this study from optional future research.
Do not send medical records to an unverified social account or pay a fee merely to secure entry into a supposed trial. Verify unexpected recruitment messages using the institution’s official contact.
Take the questions to your clinician
Bring the information sheet and study identifier to your review. Discuss how the study fits your seizure type, other treatments, pregnancy plans and practical support.
Ask whether results will be shared with participants and who will manage any treatment transition. EpilepsyWise does not currently recommend or recruit for individual trials.